# Section 1 / Interlude - Load and Store

In this section we will review the `ldr` and `str` families of
instructions.

Several example programs will be presented.

As has been explained previously, modern CPUs are so much faster than
RAM that fewer and fewer instructions are designed to operate on RAM
directly. Instead, values from RAM are loaded from RAM into registers
where they are used and possibly modified. If modified and desirable,
the changed value might be stored from a register back to RAM.

## Loading Data From RAM into Registers

The instructions used to retrieve information from memory are `ldr` and
`ldp`. The characters `ld` in these mnemonics bring to mind `load`.
`ldr` is "load a register" while `ldp` is "load a pair of registers".

Both of these instructions possess many variations, only a few of which
will be described here. Common to all variations of the `ldr` and `ldp`
instructions are the notions of *where to fetch from* and *where to
store what's been fetched*.

Like many AARCH64 instructions, the most basic form of the load
instructions are read right to left as in:

```asm
    ldr    x0, [x1]
```

which means "go to the location in RAM specified by `x1` and load what's
there into `x0`."

Similarly,

```asm
    ldp    x0, x1, [sp]
```

loads a *pair* of registers from RAM at the address specified by the
stack pointer. Any `x` register could also have been used, the `sp` is
shown here to demonstrate that it too can be used.

What goes inside the `[]` is always a pointer so must be a 64 bit wide
animal such as any `x` register or the stack *pointer*.

## Offsets

To facilitate dereferencing `structs` and for accessing `arrays`, an
offset may be specified.

There are significant restrictions placed on offsets because (among
other reasons) the entire instruction (including the encoding of the
offset) must fit within the constant 4 byte width of all AARCH64
instructions.

Here is text from an
[ARM manual](https://developer.arm.com/documentation/dui0801/h/A64-Data-Transfer-Instructions/LDR--immediate-):

```text
1) LDR Xt, [Xn|SP{, #pimm}] ; 64-bit general registers
2) LDR Xt, [Xn|SP], #simm ; 64-bit general registers, Post-index
3) LDR Xt, [Xn|SP, #simm]! ; 64-bit general registers, Pre-index
```

These say you can load an `x` register (for simplicity we have ignored
`w` registers) by dereferencing another `x` register or the stack
pointer (i.e. `[Xn|SP]`).

Line 1 says you can *optionally* specify an offset.

Lines 2 and 3 says you can specify a *change* to the dereferenced
register either before the actual fetch or after.

Assume `ptr` is a pointer to a `long`:

* Line 2 corresponds to: `*(ptr++)`.
* Line 3 corresponds to: `*(++ptr)`.

Note this is for illustration only in that the `++` syntax in C and C++
increment by 1. In lines 2 and 3, `#simm` can have values other than 1
including negative values for decrements.

Also note that when used with the stack pointer `sp`, `#simm` must be a
multiple of 16.

Concerning the restrictions placed on the offsets:

* `simm` can be in the range of -256 to 255 (10 byte signed value).
* `pimm` can be in the range of 0 to 32760 in multiples of 8.

`w` registers are used for `int`, `short` and `char`. When working with
`int`, `simm` must be a multiple of 4. When working with `short`, `simm`
must be even. See the next example.

Note that there is another set of registers for floating point values.
These are pretty cool in that they support [half precision
floats](../../section_2/float/half.md), [single precision
floats](../../section_2/float/working.md), [double precision
floats](../../section_2/float/working.md) and also have double double
precision floats (16 bytes in length)! These super big registers are
often used when executing SIMD instructions.

SIMD is *Single Instruction - Multiple Data*. For example, 4 single
precision floats might be multiplied by a scalar in a single
instruction. The SIMD instruction set that is / will be covered in this
book is called NEON.

The AARCH64 ISA includes an even more exotic means of performing mass
calculation called SVE. We will probably never cover AVE as no generally
available processor implements it. This includes Apple Silicon.

## Examples

### Loading (Storing) Various Sizes of Integers

| Instruction | Meaning |
| ----------- | ------- |
| `ldr    x0, [x1]` | Fetches a 64 bit value from the address specified by `x1` and places it in `x0` |
| `ldr    w0, [x1]` | Fetches a 32 bit value from the address specified by `x1` and places it in `w0` |
| `ldrh    w0, [x1]` | Fetches a 16 bit value from the address specified by `x1` and places it in `x0` |
| `ldrb    w0, [x1]` | Fetches an 8 bit value from the address specified by `x1` and places it in `x0` |

Notice the following:

* Pointers and longs use `x` registers.
* All other integer sizes use `w` registers where the instruction itself
  specifies the size.

### Array Indexing 1 - Wasteful

Consider this code to sum up the values in an array:

```c
long Sum(long * values, long length)                             /* 1 */
{                                                                /* 2 */
    long sum = 0;                                                /* 3 */
    for (long i = 0; i < length; i++)                            /* 4 */
    {                                                            /* 5 */
        sum += values[i];                                        /* 6 */
    }                                                            /* 7 */
    return sum;                                                  /* 8 */
}                                                                /* 9 */
```

We're not going to translate this to assembly language. Instead, we will
call out how inefficient this code is. Notice we're using the index
variable `i` for nothing more than traipsing through the array. This is
fantastically inefficient (in this case).

### Array Indexing 2 - More Efficiently

Consider the following code that performs the same function:

```c
long Sum(long * values, long length)                             /* 1 */
{                                                                /* 2 */
    long sum = 0;                                                /* 3 */
    long * end = values + length;                                /* 4 */
    while (values < end)                                         /* 5 */
    {                                                            /* 6 */
        sum += *(values++);                                      /* 7 */
    }                                                            /* 8 */
    return sum;                                                  /* 9 */
}                                                                /* 10 */
```

Notice we don't use an index variable any longer. Instead, we use the
pointer itself for both the dereferencing *and* to tell us when to stop
the loop.

`values` begins as the address of the first `long` in the array. On
`line 4` we leverage *address arithmetic* to determine where to stop.
`end` gets the address of the `long` just beyond the end of the array.
When we get there, we stop.

This approach, which avoids the overhead of a loop variable, works well
in both `C` and `C++`. It is *similar in spirit* to this in `C++`:

```c++
    vector<Foo> foov;
    for (auto it = foov.begin(); it < foov.end(); it++)
```

Here is a hand translation of the above `C` code for function `Sum()`:

```asm
    .global Sum                                                    // 1 
    .text                                                          // 2 
    .align  4                                                      // 3 

//  x0 is the pointer to data                                      // 5 
//  x1 is the length and is reused as `end`                        // 6 
//  x2 is the sum                                                  // 7 
//  x3 is the current dereferenced value                           // 8 

Sum:                                                               // 10 
    mov     x2, xzr                                                // 11 
    add     x1, x0, x1, lsl 3                                      // 12 
    b       2f                                                     // 13 

1:  ldr     x3, [x0], 8                                            // 15 
    add     x2, x2, x3                                             // 16 
2:  cmp     x0, x1                                                 // 17 
    blt     1b                                                     // 18 

    mov     x0, x2                                                 // 20 
    ret                                                            // 21 

    .end                                                           // 23 
```

Recall that `Sum(long * values, long length)` means that `x0` has the
address of the first long in the array.

* We know it's an `x` register because it is an address.
* We know it is the `0` register because it is the first argument.

`x1` contains `length`.

* We know it is an `x` register because it is a `long`.
* We know it is the `1` register because it is the second argument.

`Line 11` shows the first use of a "zero register," in this case `xzr`.
Reading from a zero register always returns zero. Writing to a zero
register is ignored. There also exists `wzr` for other integer sizes.

`Line 12` is the first really interesting line. It implements `line 4`
of the higher level language. That is:

```c
    long * end = values + length;
```

is implemented as:

```asm
    add     x1, x0, x1, lsl 3 
```

We are performing address arithmetic on `longs`. Each `long` is 8 bytes
wide. `x1, lsl 3` means "before adding the value of `x1` to `x0`,
multiply `x1` by 8." Eight is 2 raised to the power of 3. `lsl 3` means
shift left by 3 bits ... shifting is a fast way of integer
multiplication (and division) by powers of 2.

`Line 13` is the branch to the *bottom* of the loop where the decision
code is written. We saw how this can save an instruction
[here](../for/README.md).

`Line 15` is the `ldr` instruction which performs not only the load
(dereference) but also the *post increment* of the pointer.

```c
    sum += *(values++);                                                 /* 7 */
```

is implemented by both `lines 15` and `16` in the assembly language.

```asm
1:  ldr     x3, [x0], 8                                                 // 15 
    add     x2, x2, x3                                                  // 16 
```

`Line 17` compares the pointer to where we are now in the array to the
address of just past the end of the array.

`Line 18` says that as long as `x0` (or "where we are now") is less than
the end of the array (in `x1`), we keep looping.

`Line 20` copies the accumulated sum into `x0` where values returned
from functions are expected to be found.

`Lines 5 through 8` are an example of what we call a "dictionary" that
serves as a memory aid to remember which register is being used for what
purpose. Nothing introduces bugs faster then forgetting this information
and using a register for a purpose other than that for which it was
intended.

`Line 1` makes `Sum` available to the linker so that this function can
be called from other source code files.

`Line 2` tells the assembler (and linker) that what follows is code.
Code sections are marked as read / execute only so that self-modifying
code is disallowed. Self-modifying code was really fun to write but
really dangerous. We miss the ability to write such dangerous code. :(

`Line 4` isn't strictly necessary. All instructions in the ARM 64 bit
ISA are 32 bits (4 bytes) in length. The ARM processor likes it when
something is located at a multiple of its size. For example, the
preferred alignment for a `long int` in a `struct` is at an address that
is a multiple of 8. This will become apparent when we discuss `structs`.

### Faster Memory Copy

This is a heavily contrived example. In reality it is a fun challenge to
write an optimal general purpose `memcpy` function. Or, you can just use
`memcpy`.

For the purposes of this discussion, ignore issues relating to
alignment.

Suppose you needed to copy 16 bytes of memory from one place to another.
You might do it like this:

```c++
void SillyCopy16(uint8_t * dest, uint8_t * src)
{
    for (int i = 0; i < 16; i++)
        *(dest++) = *(src++);
}
```

This is especially silly as why would you go through 16 loops when you
could have simply:

```c++
void SillyCopy16(uint64_t * dest, uint64_t * src)
{
    *(dest++) = *(src++); // 3
    *dest = *src;         // 4
}
```

`Line 3` dereferences `src`, holds the value that's there and increments
`src` by the size of a `long`. The assignment puts the value
dereferenced from `src` into the location specified by `dest` and
increments the pointer afterwards.

`Line 4` is simplified because this silly move is only two `longs` long.
Since this is the second copy of 8 out of 16 bytes, we have no need to
increment the pointers.

In assembly language, this could be written:

```asm
SillyCopy16:              // 1
    ldr    x2, [x0], 8    // 2
    str    x2, [x1], 8    // 3
    ldr    x2, [x0]       // 4
    str    x2, [x1]       // 5
    ret
```

`Lines 2` and `3` increment `x0` and `x1` to the next `long` **after**
dereferencing them.

Then again, what about the *pair* load and store instructions? Can these
help? Yes!

```asm
SillyCopy16:
    ldp    x2, x3, [x0]
    stp    x2, x3, [x1]
    ret
```

As an interesting aside, remember the `q` registers? They are 16 bytes
wide by themselves.

```asm
SillyCopy16:
    ldr    q2, [x0]
    str    q2, [x1]
    ret
```

### Indexing Through An Array of `struct`

You should read the chapter on `struct` found [here](where?).

Here is a more elaborate case study. Given this:

```c
#include <stdio.h>                                               /* 1 */

struct Person                                                    /* 3 */
{                                                                /* 4 */
    char * fname;                                                /* 5 */
    char * lname;                                                /* 6 */
    int age;                                                     /* 7 */
};                                                               /* 8 */

extern int rand();                                              /* 10 */
extern struct Person * FindOldestPerson(struct Person *, int);  /* 11 */

struct Person * OriginalFindOldestPerson(struct Person * people, int length) /* 13 */
{                                                               /* 14 */
    int oldest_age = 0;                                         /* 15 */
    struct Person * oldest_ptr = NULL;                          /* 16 */

    if (people)                                                 /* 18 */
    {                                                           /* 19 */
        struct Person * end_ptr = people + length;              /* 20 */
        while (people < end_ptr)                                /* 21 */
        {                                                       /* 22 */
            if (people->age > oldest_age)                       /* 23 */
            {                                                   /* 24 */
                oldest_age = people->age;                       /* 25 */
                oldest_ptr = people;                            /* 26 */
            }                                                   /* 27 */
            people++;                                           /* 28 */
        }                                                       /* 29 */
    }                                                           /* 30 */
    return oldest_ptr;                                          /* 31 */
}                                                               /* 32 */

#define LENGTH  20                                              /* 34 */

int main()                                                      /* 36 */
{                                                               /* 37 */
    struct Person array[LENGTH];                                /* 38 */
    for (int i = 0; i < LENGTH; i++)                            /* 39 */
    {                                                           /* 40 */
        array[i].age = rand() % 5000;                           /* 41 */
    }                                                           /* 42 */
    struct Person * oldest = FindOldestPerson(array, LENGTH);   /* 43 */
    for (int i = 0; i < LENGTH; i++)                            /* 44 */
    {                                                           /* 45 */
        printf("%d", array[i].age);                             /* 46 */
        if (oldest == &array[i])                                /* 47 */
            printf("*");                                        /* 48 */
        printf("\n");                                           /* 49 */
    }                                                           /* 50 */
}                                                               /* 51 */
```

This program defines a `struct` called `Person`. See `line 3`.

It will create an array of these `structs` with length 20. See `line
38`.

It will initialize the `age` data member of each instance with a random
value between 0 and 5000 (Biblical people maybe?). See `lines 39 to 42`.
Note that the pointers to first name and last name are indeed left
uninitialized because these values are unimportant to this demo. They
serve only to move the location of the `age` member away from offset 0.

`Line 11` tells us that somewhere else, there is a function called
`FindOldestPerson`. That function must have a `.global` specifying the
same name so that the linker can reconcile the reference to
`FindOldestPerson`.

`OriginalFindOldestPerson` takes a pointer to an instance of `struct
Person`. Being a pointer, this can be used as a way of finding just one
instance or, as in our case, an array of these `structs`.

The function finds the largest value in the `age` member using the
expected algorithm. It initializes an `oldest_age` found so far with 0
and a pointer to that instance. It marches through the array at most
`length` times. If it finds an instance with an age older than the
oldest found so far, it updates both values.

Upon reaching the end of the array, it will return a pointer to the
instance containing the oldest age. If there is a tie, it will return
the first oldest instance.

`Line 18` is **defensive programming**. It ensures that no search is
performed if the function is handed a null pointer.

`gcc` with `-O2` or `-O3` optimization rendered
`OriginalFindOldestPerson()` into 18 lines of assembly language.

Here is an assembly language implementation.

This example is more "real world" in that it offers us the chance to
work with `w` registers (`int`). It also demonstrates `csel` which is
like the `C` and `C++` `ternary operator`.

```asm
        .global FindOldestPerson                                        // 1 
        .text                                                           // 2 
        .align  2                                                       // 3 
                                                                        // 4 
//  x0  has struct Person * people                                      // 5 
//      will be used for oldest_ptr as this is the return value         // 6 
//  w1  has int length                                                  // 7 
//  w2  used for oldest_age                                             // 8 
//  x3  used for Person *                                               // 9 
//  x4  used for end_ptr                                                // 10 
//  w5  used for scratch                                                // 11 
                                                                        // 12 
FindOldestPerson:                                                       // 13 
        cbz     x0, 99f             // short circuit                    // 14 
        mov     w2, wzr             // initial oldest age is 0          // 15 
        mov     x3, x0              // initialize loop pointer          // 16 
        mov     x0, xzr             // initialize return value          // 17 
        mov     w5, 24              // struct is 24 bytes wide          // 18 
        smaddl  x4, w1, w5, x3      // initialize end_ptr               // 19 
        b       10f                 // enter loop                       // 20 
                                                                        // 21 
1:      ldr     w5, [x3, p.age]     // fetch loop ptr -> age            // 22 
        cmp     w2, w5              // compare to oldest_age            // 23 
        csel    w2, w2, w5, gt      // update based on cmp              // 24 
        csel    x0, x0, x3, gt      // update based on cmp              // 25 
        add     x3, x3, 24          // increment loop ptr               // 26 
10:     cmp     x3, x4              // has loop ptr reached end_ptr?    // 27 
        blt     1b                  // no, not yet                      // 28 
                                                                        // 29 
99:     ret                                                             // 30 
                                                                        // 31 
        .data                                                           // 32 
        .struct 0                                                       // 33 
p.fn:   .skip   8                                                       // 34 
p.ln:   .skip   8                                                       // 35 
p.age:  .skip   4                                                       // 36 
p.pad:  .skip   4                                                       // 37 
                                                                        // 38 
        .end                                                            // 39 
```

Before we get to the explanation, permit us a small pat on the back. The
above version, written by us humans, rendered `FindOldestPerson()` in 15
lines of actual code.

`Lines 5` through `11` are vitally important comments. You should always
write comments like these as they will serve as your "dictionary" to
help you keep track of what particular registers will be used for.
Notice this is the second time we have suggested this. It isn't that we
forgot that we suggested it above. Rather we suggest it a second time,
and belabor the point, because it is *that* important.

`x0` begins as the pointer to `struct Person` being passed to us. `x0`
is also used for returning values from a function so we'll copy `x0` to
`x3` on `line 16`. This will save us an instruction later as we won't
have to copy the intended return value back to `x0` prior to the `ret`
on `line 30`.

`w1` is passed to us as the length of the array. It is in a `w` register
because we defined it as an `int`. This is the first time you're seeing
a `w` register in actual use.

`w2` will hold the oldest age found so far. It is a `w` register because
we defined age as an `int`.

`x3` is described above under `x0`.

`x4` will be set to the address after the end of the array and will be
used to stop our loop.

`w5` is used for scratch.

Recall that registers 0 through 7 are scratch registers and do not have
to be backed up or restored.

`Line 14` is a combination compare AND branch instruction.

```asm
       cbz     x0, 99f
```

says "Check `x0`. If it is zero, branch forward to temporary label 99."
The `cbz` mnemonic means "compare and branch if zero." There is also a
`cbnz` instruction branching if not zero.

The `cbz` and `cbnz` instructions exist because testing against zero is
so common.

Our choice of naming a temporary label `99` is a matter of personal
*style*. We use `99` to indicate from where a function is going to exit.
This is an aid to remembering and understanding the code.

The `cbz` instruction is the same as:

```asm
        cmp    x0, xzr
        beq    99f
```

`Line 14` implements `line 18` of the `C` code. It ensures we will
handle being passed a null pointer as input. This is an example of
**defensive programming**. Without this check, we would crash if handed
a null pointer. Crashing is what experts call **Bad**.

The closing brace found on `line 30` of the `C` code is implemented on
`line 30` of the assembly language code. A coincidence, surely.

`Line 15` establishes the oldest age found so far as being 0. It makes
use of the `wzr` zero register. We use `w` because the destination is
`w` register.

`Line 16` copies the base address of the array to `x3` from `x0`. The
value arrives in `x0` because it is the first parameter to the function.
It must be an `x` register because it is a pointer. We need a pointer to
march through the array. `x0` serves double duty as holding the first
parameter but also is the place where function return values are found.

We copy `x0` out to `x3` so that we can use `x0` to store a pointer to
the array element representing the oldest person found so far. If we
iterated over the array using `x0`, we would still a) need another `x`
register to hold the pointer to the oldest person so far and b) have to
copy this register to `x0` before we return anyway. Doing the marching
through the array is a register *other* than `x0` saves us one
instruction.

`Line 17` initializes `x0` after we've preserved its original value in
`x3`.

`Line 18` puts the value of 24 into `w5`. This register is used for
scratch or intermediate calculation purposes. We're setting up the
calculation which ends with the pointer to just beyond the end of the
array. The size of the `struct Person` is 24 bytes (not 20). We
considered allowing the assembler to compute this for us but chose
instead to hard code the value.

There's the beginning of a lesson here. Notice that the apparent length
of `Person` is 20 bytes, being two pointers plus an int. But the actual
length is 24 bytes. This is because the natural alignment of data is at
addresses which are multiples of their width. The first data member of
the struct is a pointer (8 bytes). Therefore, the alignment of the
struct must be a multiple of 8. Four wasted bytes are added to the
`struct` to make its length come out as a multiple of 8.

`Line 19` is a mouthful. The mnemonic `smaddl` means *signed multiply
add long*. Here is the instruction:

```asm
        smaddl  x4, w1, w5, x3      // initialize end_ptr          // 19 
```

`w1` (the length) will be multiplied by `w5` (the size of each array
member), added to `x3` (the base address of the array) and the result
will be placed into `x4`. This assembly language instruction implements
this in C:

```c
        struct Person * end_ptr = people + length;              /* 20 */
```

The compiler itself knows the true length of a `Person` (it is 24). When
doing "address arithmetic" the compiler automatically scales the
computation by the actual size of the thing being calculated. In this
case, `line 19` says:

"Take the value in length. Multiply it by the size of one `Person` (24).
Then add this value to the address contained in `people`."

`Line 20` branches to the `while` loop's decision test. Putting the
decision test of a loop at the loop's bottom rather than the top has
previously been shown to save one instruction.

`Line 22` begins the main loop of this function. `w5` is loaded with the
`int` found 16 bytes away from the address pointed to by `x3`. In this
case, we allowed the assembler to compute the 16 for us - you can see
this on `lines 33` through `37`. A `w` register is used because `age` is
an `int`.

`Line 23` compares the current age to the largest age found so far. This
is a key line in that the `cmp` sets *status bits* which are used by the
next two, very cool, instructions.

`Line 24` and `25` both make use of the `csel` instruction. The mnemonic
means "conditional select". The comparison **has already been made** (on
`line 23`) setting the CPU's status bits recording if the comparison
resulted in a less than zero, zero, or more than zero result.

`Lines 24` and `25` read:

```asm
        csel    w2, w2, w5, gt      // update based on cmp         // 24 
        csel    x0, x0, x3, gt      // update based on cmp         // 25 
```

These are identical to this:

```c
        w2 = (w5 > w2) ? w5 : w2;
        x0 = (x5 > x2) ? x3 : x0;
```

**Remember that the condition or status bits have already been set based
upon whether or not the current age is greater than (or equal to) the
oldest age found so far. Both of the `csel` instructions leverage the
outcome of the comparison, done just once.**

`csel`, like the `C` and `C++` ternary operator, is quite cool in that
we get the results of an `if` statement without the overhead of
branching instructions!

`Line 26` increments the loop pointer to the next array member or to the
end of the array.

`Line 27` compares the new value of the loop pointer to the address
coming after the array.

`Line 28` will branch to the next iteration of the loop if `x3` has not
yet advanced as far as `x4` sitting past the end of the array.

`Line 30` is simply a `ret` without no other bookkeeping because the
value we want to return has been sitting in `x0` all along! A reminder
that we did not need to preserve the value of `x30`, for example,
because this function makes no function calls. `x30`, our return
address, remains safely unchanged.

## What Did We Learn?

In the preceding example we saw:

* Use of `w` registers.
* Use of `cbz`, a special case of a compare and branch in one.
* `smaddl` for doing address arithmetic.
* `csel` for efficiently choosing one of two values like the C and C++
  ternary operator.
* Use of a `struct`.
* Brief discussion of alignment within `structs`.

**WOW!**

## Questions

TO COME LATER
