# Section 1 / Chapter 1 / Hello World

## Overview

We start out with a C++
program kind-of-like "Hello World" and break it down into several versions
which are closer and closer to a high level assembly language (otherwise
known as C). At the last step, we convert the C into ARM V8 assembly language.

At every step, we'll completely explain the code and document what has
changed from version to version so that little background is assumed.

## V1 in C++

Here is the code to a program that prints to the console, the contents
of `argv`, that is: the command line arguments specified when the
program is run from the shell (command line).

```c++
#include <iostream>                                                     // 1 
                                                                        // 2 
using namespace std;                                                    // 3 
                                                                        // 4 
int main(int argc, char * argv[]) {                                     // 5 
    while (*argv) {                                                     // 6 
        cout << *(argv++) << endl;                                      // 7 
    }                                                                   // 8 
    return 0;                                                           // 9 
}                                                                       // 10
```

[Here](./v1.cpp) is a link to the program without line numbers.

Here is the output of this program:

```text
% ./a.out one two "three plus four"
./a.out
one
two
three plus four
% 
```

As you can see in the output, the program printed each of the command line parameters (arguments) in the order in which they were specified. These come to your program stored in an array called
(by convention) `argv` as the second parameter to `main()`.

### Line 1

`Line 1` makes available the default output stream `cout`. `cout` stands for `c`onsole `out`put. The angle brackets (`<` and `>`) indicate the include file `iostream` comes from a language or system supplied directory as opposed to an include file written by you.

For an explanation of what an `include` file is and how it fits into the compilation workflow see [here](https://youtu.be/Iv3psS4n9j8).

### Line 3

`Line 3` is a common statement in C++ programs. It allows the use of many standard library features such as `cout` by typing fewer characters. In this case, for example, `line 7` without the `line 3` `using` would read:

```c++
std::cout << *(argv++) << std::endl;
```

There are other reasons to specify a `using namespace` and even some reasons *not* to specify a `using namespace`. These however, are not relevant to this discussion.

### Line 5

`Line 5` is a function declaration declaring `main`. In command line
programs (and indeed in many non-command line programs), a function
called `main` is necessary.

In all respects save one, `main` is an
ordinary user-written function. What makes `main` special is its name
and its parameters (typically called `argc` and `argv`). A function named
`main` is special because by default it is the function at which your
code will begin execution.

`argc` is an integer argument which specifies the number of *non-null*
arguments found by following the *pointers* contained in in `argv`. We will
explain *non-null* and *pointers* later.

In the case of the execution portrayed above, `argc` would have the value
of `4`. `argc` **always** has a value of at least 1. This is because the
first command line argument accessible via `argv` is the *path* to the
program being executed. For our purposes, think of the *path* as like the *name* of the program.

`argv` is declared as a *pointer to one or more pointers to chars*. The
concept of a *pointer* is essential to understanding assembly language.
*Pointers* are scary for new programmers. They don't have to be. When
you see the word *pointer* used, think *address of* something.

*"pointer to a pointer"* sounds even more scary but if you think of pointers as *address of*, then *"pointer to a pointer"* means something which contains the address of something else which itself hold the address of a thing.

In this case, the first *something* is `argv`. It contains the address of
an array holding 1 or more addresses of null terminated strings.

Here is a picture depicting this:

![argv](./argv.png)

#### Explanation of "non-null"

The above diagram also illustrates what we mean by *non-null*.

*argc* contains the value of 4 in the case depicted by the image.
Looking at the array pointed to by
`argv` you will notice **5** boxes (or *elements*) arranged in a succession
of memory locations. The last is filled with a 0 or `NULL`. The first 4 entries are non-null (i.e. they contain a value other than 0).

The last element in the array contains a `NULL` in C (or
`nullptr` in C++) is not counted by `argc` because it is, in fact, a null.

Be reminded that null is the value of `0`. We will use this
fact (that the last value in the array is `0` to our advantage).

### Line 5 Continued

One final comment about `line 5` is that it currently reads

```c++
char * argv[]
```

accentuating the array property of `argv` but it could equivalently
have been written:

```c++
char ** argv
```

accentuating the *pointer to a pointer* (i.e. two successive `*`) quality of `argv`. Here the `*` indicates *pointer*. Two in a row means *pointer to a pointer*.

### Line 6

```c++
while (*argv) {
```

introduces a `while` loop. The code (i.e. the *body* of the loop) will
repeatedly execute as long as the value inside the parenthesis is found
to be `true` (i.e. non-zero or specifically in our case *non-null*).
This loop will stop when `*argv` contains 0 (NULL).

Somewhere inside the body of the loop, the value of `argv` will be changed.
If it were not, the loop would not terminate (i.e. an *infinite loop*).

#### Line 6 could be redone as a `for` loop

`Line 6` in this case could have been written using a `for` loop:

```c++
for (int index = 0; index < argc; index++)
```

Using this approach will result in more assembly language code being
generated including the introduction of an otherwise unneeded variable
`index`. `index` will range from `0` to `3` (stopping when index ceases
to be less than `4`). `index` would be used in figuring out which
member of `argv` is examined in each loop. We claim `index` is unneeded in
this case as we have a different way of moving through the `argv` array and,
most importantly, knowing when to stop.

### Line 7

`Line 7` is where is action is. Firstly, `cout` will receive some value for printing. `cout` is an output stream and the `<<` indicates something is being
shoved into it - i.e. is being output.

At the end of `line 7` is `endl`. This is a C++ shorthand for printing a
new line. In total, `line 7` prints something followed by advancing the
output to a new line.

#### What will be printed?

`*(argv++)` is complicated. Let's break it down.

We examine what is inside the parentheses first (as demanded by the rules
governing the *order of operations*).

The value of `argv` is captured first. Recall this value is the address
of an address of some characters. This value is put aside for a moment but
will be used soon.

Next the value of `argv` is incremented (the `++`). We know the value of
`argv` is captured first because the `++` comes *after* `argv`. This is
how `argv` changes so as to step through the elements of the array. At
some point `argv` will contain the address of a value `0` - and that's what
will terminate the `while` loop.

After `argv` is incremented, its **previous** value is *dereferenced* indicated
by the `*` outside the parentheses. Remember, we put the value aside before
incrementing it.

`argv` contains the address of something.
Dereferencing `argv` means "go fetch what is found at the address specified
by `argv`".

That, dear reader, is the address of the string of characters to be printed.

### Line 8

`Line 8` contains a matching brace for the opening brace found line `line 6`.
This marks the end of the `while` loop's *body*. The `}` causes a **jump**
back to evaluating what is pointed to by argv to see if it is now null (which
exits the loop). A synonym for **jump** is **branch** - remember this.

Also remember that braces in a higher level language can mean a branch or jump in
assembly language. A brace in a higher level language can also mean a *target* or landing place
for a jump / branch elsewhere in the code.

### Line 9

This program is itself invoked by another program (in this case the shell).
The value returned by `main` is received by the program that launched this program. `Line 9` causes the shell to be able to receive the value 0 which,
by convention, means our program exited normally.

Here's how to see a program's return value:

```text
$ ./a.out
$ echo $?
0
$
```

The `0` is the program's return code.

## V2

Here is version 2 of our program:

```c++
#include <iostream>                                                     // 1 
                                                                        // 2 
using namespace std;                                                    // 3 
                                                                        // 4 
int main(int argc, char * argv[]) {                                     // 5 
    top:                                                                // 6 
        if (*argv) {                                                    // 7 
            cout << *(argv++) << endl;                                  // 8 
            goto top;                                                   // 9 
        }                                                               // 10 
    return 0;                                                           // 11 
}                                                                       // 12 
```

[Here](./v2.cpp) is the original file.

In this version, we've moved a bit closer to assembly language by eliminating
the `while` loop replacing it with an `if` statement, a `label` and a `goto`.

### Line 6

This line is a `label`. This is not an instruction, rather it is a way of specifying the address of an instruction (or data). Labels exist in assembly language, `while` loops do not, per se. Rather, you must code them yourself using some kind of *branch* instruction (remember above the word *branch*?) in this case the `goto`.

### Line 7

The `while` loop has been removed. It has been replaced with explicit use of
an `if` statement at what was the top of the loop and a `goto` branch at what
was the bottom. This is how `while` loops are implemented - now we're
explicitly making this visible. For more information on `while` loops
see [here](../while/README.md)

### Line 9

The use of `goto` is normally frowned upon in modern higher level languages.
However, the feature or ability to use it still remains, left over from the earliest days of C.
The keyword `goto` is
followed by the label to which control should transfer. `goto` is an example of a branch and the label `top` is the *target* of the branch.

## V3

In version 3 we eliminate the C++'ism of `cout`. `cout` doesn't exist in assembly language so
we'll use `puts` instead to implement the same behavior
of the use of `cout` - namely the printing out of what is pointed to by
`*argv` *and* printing out a new line (done internally for us by `puts`).

At this point, there is no C++ left - only C.

 ```c++
 #include <stdio.h>                                                      // 1 
                                                                         // 2 
int main(int argc, char * argv[]) {                                     // 3 
    top:                                                                 // 4 
        if (*argv) {                                                     // 5 
            puts(*(argv++));                                             // 6 
            goto top;                                                    // 7 
        }                                                                // 8 
    return 0;                                                            // 9 
}                                                                       // 10 
```

[Here](./v3.cpp) is the original code.

### Line 6

`puts` as described above takes the address of a C string and prints it out with the addition of a trailing new line. What's going on inside the parentheses is identical to the previous versions.

To review, the current value of `argv` is put aside for reuse in a moment.
Then `argv` is incremented. Recall that `argv` is "the address of a variable holding the address
of a string." Incrementing `argv` has the effect of moving on to the next string for the *next*
iteration of the loop.

Then, the *previous* value of `argv` which we set aside, is dereferenced. `*argv` is the address
of a string. That string is emitted by `puts` followed
by a new line.

## Version 4

In this version we're decomposing the `if` statement even further so as to
eliminate the braces that were part of the previous version's `if` statement.

In general, braces in the higher level language serve as either branches or
as labels.

```c
#include <stdio.h>                                                      /* 1 */
                                                                        /* 2 */
int main(int argc, char * argv[]) {                                     /* 3 */
    top:                                                                /* 4 */
        if (*argv == NULL)                                              /* 5 */
            goto bottom;                                                /* 6 */
        puts(*(argv++));                                                /* 7 */
        goto top;                                                       /* 8 */
                                                                        /* 9 */
    bottom:                                                             /* 10 */
        return 0;                                                       /* 11 */
}                                                                       /* 12 */
```

[Here](./v4.c) is the original code.

### Line 5

Notice how the sense of the `if` statement has reversed compared to the
previous version.

In the previous version, we call `puts` only if the value of `*argv` is not
null. By flipping the sense of the `if` statement, it means "if the value of
`*argv` **is** null, skip calling `puts`."

This isn't a requirement. In this case, flipping the sense of the `if` statement
results in fewer lines of assembly language.

### Line 6

We exit our decomposed loop by branching to a label beyond the `goto`
implementing the bottom of what was our `while` loop.

At this point we have devolved our program into just barely above the level
of assembly language. In the next version, which is written in ARM V8
assembly language, you'll see that just about every instruction has a
one to one correspondence to the C code in version 4.

## Version 5 - in Assembly Language

Here is the same program written in ARM V8 assembly language.

```asm
    .global main                                                        // 1 
main:                                                                   // 2 
    stp     x21, x30, [sp, -16]!    // push onto stack                  // 3 
    mov     x21, x1                 // argc -> x0, argv -> x1           // 4 
                                                                        // 5 
top:                                                                    // 6 
    ldr     x0, [x21], 8            // argv++, old value in x0          // 7 
    cbz     x0, bottom              // if *argv == NULL goto bottom     // 8 
    bl      puts                    // puts(*argv)                      // 9 
    b       top                     // goto top                         // 10 
                                                                        // 11 
bottom:                                                                 // 12 
    ldp     x21, x30, [sp], 16      // pop from stack                   // 13 
    mov     x0, xzr                 // return 0                         // 14 
    ret                                                                 // 15 
                                                                        // 16 
    .end                                                                // 17 
```

[Here](./v5.s) is the original code.

Get your bearings by noticing the labels. They are the same as in our previous
version and perform the same roles.

### Line 1

`main` is a function that is specially named. `Line 1` instructs the assembler to make the name
and location of `main` visible to the *linker*. To refresh your knowledge of the linker, see
[here](https://youtu.be/Iv3psS4n9j8).

Without `Line 1`, building the executable will fail with an unresolved symbol error -
namely that the linker could not find `main`.

### Line 2

In `Line 1` we told the assembler to publish the location of the label `main`. In `Line 2` we're
actually specifying the value of `main`. Contrast `main` with `top` and `bottom`. The difference
between them is that only `main` is made visible outside this file.

Again, in the case of `main`, the label must be specified as `global` so that the linker can find
it. `top` and `bottom` are also labels but they are not published outside this one source file.

### Line 3

This instruction copies the value in two *registers* onto your *stack*. There's a lot of new information here.

*Registers* are ultra high speed storage locations built into the circuitry of the processor. On the ARM, all computation takes place in the registers (with very few exceptions). Memory, with very few exceptions, is used to persist data (and hold instructions). In a higher level language, when you say:

```c++
x = x + 1;
```

the assembly language this looks like:

```text
1. Load the memory address of x into a register.
2. Go out to that memory address and fetch what it contains into a register (a dereference).
3. Add one to that value (in the register).
4. Store the value back to memory using the address loaded on line 1.
```

The thing to note here is that the increment of x didn't happen in memory - it happened in a register. The value in x had to be loaded into a register, incremented in the register and finally written back to memory. By careful design, use of memory for persisting data
can be avoided completely. This makes for very fast execution because registers are
one or more orders of magnitude faster than RAM.

The *stack* is a region of memory used to store *local* variables as well as the trail of breadcrumbs which allows functions to return from whence they were invoked. In a high level language, you don't manage the stack yourself. Stacks happen.

In a higher level language, values go onto the stack (push) and leave the stack (pop) passively
by virtue of having made function calls. In assembly language *you* manage the stack!

`Line 3` `st`ores a `p`air of registers on the stack. `stp` means *store pair*. The registers being copied to the stack are `x21` and `x30`. `x30` is special as it contains the address to which this function should return. It is the "breadcrumb" mentioned before.

`x30` gets overwritten every time a function call is made. If `main()` made no function calls itself, `x30` would not have to be backed up. However, this `main()` does make function calls (to `puts()`).

If we don't *save* `x30` on the stack when `main` initially enters, our ability to properly return to whoever called `main` would be broken by the function call to `puts()`. In all likelihood when this program ended it would cause a crash.

`x21` is also being saved on the stack. *Calling conventions* specify some registers can be blown away (used as scratch) while some registers must be preserved and restored to their previous values upon leaving the function. `x21` is one of those registers.

`x21` will be used in `main` so its original value must be preserved.

Finally let's look at `[sp, -16]!`. There's a lot going on here.

First, the `[` and `]` serve the same purpose of the asterisk in C and C++ indicating "dereference." It means use what's inside the brackets as an address for going out to memory.

Next, `sp` means use the stack pointer - a register which keeps track of where your stack currently is. The `-16` subtracts 16 from the current value of the stack register. `x` registers like `x21` and `x30` are each 8 bytes (64 bits) wide. This accounts for the value 16 (i.e. 2 \* 8.

Lastly, the exclamation point means that the stack pointer should be changed (i.e. the -16 applied to it) *before* the value of the stack pointer is used as the address in memory to which the registers will be copied. Again, this is a predecrement.

**The stack pointer in ARM V8 can only be manipulated in multiples of 16.**

**The stack pointer in ARM V8 can only be manipulated in multiples of 16.**

**The stack pointer in ARM V8 can only be manipulated in multiples of 16.**

In a higher level language `Line 3` would look like this:

```c++=
*(--sp) = x21;
*(--sp) = x30;
```

That is, subtract 8 from the stack pointer and copy `x21` to that location. Then, subtract 8 from the stack pointer and copy `x30` to that location.

**The stack pointer in ARM V8 can only be manipulated in multiples of 16.**

**The stack pointer in ARM V8 can only be manipulated in multiples of 16.**

**The stack pointer in ARM V8 can only be manipulated in multiples of 16.**

### Line 4

When a function is passed parameters, up to 8 of them can be found in the first 8 scratch registers (`x0` through `x7`). For example, recall:

```c++
main(int argc, char ** argv)
```

`argc` is the first parameter. It shows up to the function in register `x0`. This is a slight oversimplification because `x` registers are 64 bits wide and `int` is 32 bits wide. The simplification isn't relevant here so let's continue.

`argv` is the second parameter to `main`. Being second, it shows up in `main` in register `x1`.

`x0` through `x7` are truly scratch registers - they can be overwritten with new values at any time by you or when calling other functions (like `main` will call `puts`). Because of this, `argv` that arrives in `x1` is preserved in `x21` (whose original value we already preserved on the stack).

```asm
mov   x21, x1
```

can be read as `copy what is in x1 into x21`. I.e. read the register use from right to left.

## Line 6

This line contains the label `top`. The instruction that follows (the `ldr`) is stored at some address. The value of `top` is that address. The unconditional branch on `line 10` specifies `top` as the destination of the branch. You can think of `line 10` as the closing brace of the original while loop.

## Lines 7, 8 and 9

Version 4 contains:

```c++
5) if (*argv == NULL)
6)    goto bottom;
7) puts(*(argv++));
```

These three lines are implemented on `lines 7, 8 and 9` in the assembly language. These instructions are:

```asm
7)   ldr   x0, [x21], 8
8)   cbz   x0, bottom
9)   bl    puts
```

The action of the assembly language statement differs slightly in the order in which the C++ operates.

In both cases, `argv` is dereferenced first. In C++ this is done with `*argv`. In the assembly language, this is done with `[x21]` (recall, we put `x1` into `x21`).

In C++ the increment of `argv` is done on line 7 - the `++` post increment. In the assembly language, the post increment is done on `line 7` which is the *first* instruction of the three whereas in C++ the post increment happens on the *last* line of three.

This difference is OK because the older value of `argv` is preserved in `x0` for the call to
`puts()`. As long as we can get at the value of `argv` before the increment, it doesn't
matter when the increment is done.

The *if* happens on the first line of the C++ but done on the middle line of the assembly language. `cbz` stands for *`C`onditionally `B`ranch if `Z`ero*.

The `goto` or branch happens on the middle line (`line 8`) of the assembly language. Very economical in terms of code!

`puts` is called with the un-incremented version of `argv` in the C++ version - again notice the use of post increment. In the assembly language version this is also the case. How? `argv` before
the increment was put in `x0`.
That value is still sitting in `x0` when the function call (`bl`) is made.

A word about `bl`: `B`ranch with `L`ink puts the address of the *next* (`line 10`) instruction into `x30` behind the scene. This is why we backed up `x30` on `line 3`. When `puts` executes its return (via `ret`), control will branch to `line 10`.

## Line 10

`Line 10` is exactly the same as `line 8` of Version 4. It hides out as the closing brace on `line 8` of Version 1.

## Lines 13, 14 and 15

`Lines 13` through `15` implement the return of zero found on `line 11` of Version 4. The original values of `x21` and `x30` are restored. The stack pointer is post incremented back to where it started. Zero is put in `x0` and `main` returns.

## Summary

Assembly language is scary to a lot of people. It doesn't need to be.

We have shown one small example of how close C is to assembly language. With a little practice,
one can code in assembly language at pretty much the same speed as C. We are not advocating the
ditching of your high level languages rather... always use the *right* tool for the *right* job.

We do maintain that understanding assembly language principles will improve your higher level
language coding.

## Questions

### 1

(T | F) It is the compiler's job to reduce a higher level language to assembly language.

Answer: True - The "compiler" is just one step in the "compilation" process. In fact it
is step 2. Invoking the "preprocessor" is step 1.

### 2

(T | F) Failing to mark `main` as a `global` will result in a syntax error.

Answer: False - a linker error will happen, not a syntax error.

### 3

\___ and ___ implement the braces in C and C++.

Answer: labels and branches - the closing brace of a `while` loop for example,
is a branch instruction. The opening brace of a `while` is a label.

### 4

(T | F) The `cbz` instruction implements the following pseudocode:

```text
if a_register has value 0
    then goto label
```

Answer: True - `cbz` stands for "compare and branch if zero". There is also
a `cbnz` instruction. To test for other Boolean conditions, use `cmp`.

### 5

While this chapter is entitled "Hello World," the example used isn't actually "Hello World." Here is a "Hello World" for you to complete:

```text
   .global main                                                       
main:                                                                 
    str     x30, [sp, -16]!         // Preserve x30
    ldr     x0, =HW                 // Load address of string for puts
    WHAT GOES HERE?                 // puts(HW)                    
    ldr     x30, [sp], 16           // Restore x30
    mov     x0, xzr                 // return 0                        
    ret                                                                

    .data
HW: .asciz  "Hello, World"                                                                       
    .end                                                              
```

Answer:

```text
    bl      puts
```