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# Section 1 / Passing Parameters To Functions
How parameters are passed to functions can be different from OS to OS.
This chapter is written to the standard implemented for Linux. It
differs from the **calling convention** used on Apple Silicon where
*variadic* functioned are used, for example.
Up to 8 parameters can be passed directly via scratch registers. Each
parameter can be up to the size of an address, long or double (8 bytes).
If you need to pass more than 8 parameters or you need to pass
parameters which are larger than 8 bytes or are `structs` called by
value, you would use a different technique described later.
Remember that even large data structures that are passed by reference
are, in fact, passed via their base address (as a pointer).
For the purposes of the present discussion, we assume all parameters are
`long int` and are therefore stored in `x` registers.
Up to 8 parameters are passed in the scratch registers (of which there
are a matching 8). These are `x0` through `x7`. *Scratch* means the
value of the register can be changed at will without any need to backup
or restore their values across function calls.
**This means that you cannot count on the contents of the scratch
registers maintaining their value if your function makes any function
calls.**
**This means that you cannot count on the contents of the scratch
registers maintaining their value if your function makes any function
calls.**
**This means that you cannot count on the contents of the scratch
registers maintaining their value if your function makes any function
calls.**
For example:
```c
long func(long p1, long p2) // 1
{ // 2
return p1 + p2; // 3
} // 4
```
is implemented as:
```asm
func: add x0, x0, x1 // 1
ret // 2
```
The value of the first parameter (`p1`) is copied into the first scratch
register (`x0`). It's an `x` because the parameter's type is `long int`.
It is the `0` register, because that is the first scratch register.
The value of the second parameter (`p2`) is copied into the second
scratch register (the `1` register) because it is the second argument,
and so on.
`Line 1` of the assembly language provides the label `func` to which a
`bl` can be made.
`Line 1` also provides the full body of the function - the third
argument to `add` is added to the second and the result is put in the
first. Thus it is: `x0 = x0 + x1`.
Just as scratch registers are used for passing (up to 8) parameters, the
`0` register is used for function returns. In the case of the current
code, the result of the addition is already sitting in `x0` so all we do
is `ret` on `Line 2`.
**This is an advanced topic:** If you are the author of both the caller
and the callee and both are in assembly language, you can play loosey
goosey with how you return values. Specifically, you can return more
than one value. **But** if you do so, you give up the possibility of
calling these functions from C or C++. Maybe you should forget you read
this paragraph?
## `const`
Suppose we had:
```c++
long func(const long p1, const long p2) // 1
{ // 2
return p1 + p2; // 3
} // 4
```
how would the assembly language change?
Answer: no change at all!
`const` is an instruction to the compiler ordering it to prohibit
changing the values of `p1` and `p2`. We're smart humans and realize
that our assembly language makes no attempt to change `p1` and `p2` so
no changes are warranted.
## Passing Pointers
A pointer is an address of something. The word *pointer* is scary. The
words *address of* are not as scary. They mean **exactly** the same
thing.
Here is a function which *also* adds two parameters together but this
time using pointers to `long int` rather than the values themselves.
```c
void func(long * p1, long * p2) // 1
{ // 2
*p1 = *p1 + *p2; // 3
} // 4
```
`Line 1` passes the *address of* `p1` and `p2` as parameters. That is,
the addresses of `p1` and `p2` are passed in registers `x0` and `x1`
rather than their contents. The contents of the underlying longs still
reside in memory. That is:
* The address of `p1` arrives in `x0`. The value of `p1` still
resides in memory.
* The value of `p1` is found in memory at the address specified by the
parameter.
`Line 3` *dereferences* the addresses to fetch their underlying values.
The values are added together and the result overwrites the value
pointed to by `p1`.
Here it is in assembly language:
```asm
func: ldr x2, [x0] // 1
ldr x3, [x1] // 2
add x2, x2, x3 // 3
str x2, [x0] // 4
ret // 5
```
The value of `x0` on return is, in the general sense, undefined because
this is a `void` function.
The `add` instruction cannot operate on values in memory. Only upon
registers.
With little exception, all the *action* takes place in registers, not
memory. Therefore, the underlying values pointed to by the parameters
must be fetched from memory.
`Line 1` provides the label to which a use of `bl` can branch with link
register.
Remember that up to the first 8 parameters are passed in the 8 scratch
registers. Thus, the address of `p1` and the address of `p2` are stored
in `x0` and `x1` respectively. `0` and `1` because these are the first
two parameters. The `x` form of the `0` and `1` registers are used
because the parameters' type are addresses.
* Addresses (pointers) to any type are 64 bits wide and therefore must
use `x` registers.
* `long` and `unsigned long` integers are 64 bits wide and ...
* `double` floats are 64 bits wide
`Line 1` also dereferences the address held in `x0` going out to memory
and loading (`ldr`) the value found there into `x2`, another scratch
register. It's scratch so it doesn't need backing up and restoring.
`Line 2` does the same for `p2`, putting its value in `x3`.
To say this again but differently, the syntax `[` then an `x` register
followed by `]` means use the `x` register as an address in RAM. Go
to that address and fetch its value. This is a *dereference*.
Why didn't we reuse `x0` and `x1` as in:
```asm
ldr x0, [x0]
ldr x1, [x1]
```
Doing so would be legal but would end in tears.
Doing so would blow away the address of `p1` (and `p2` too). Destroying
the address of `p1` would prevent us from copying the result of the
addition back into memory since the address to which we would want to
store the result of the addition would be gone. Can't have that!
So, as the smart *human*, we decided to use `x2` and `x3` because, well,
they're scratch.
`Line 3` performs the addition.
`Line 4` stored the value in `x2` at the address in memory still sitting
in `x0`.
### Passing by Reference
Suppose we had:
```c++
long func(long & p1, long & p2) // 1
{ // 2
return p1 + p2; // 3
} // 4
```
how would the assembly language change?
Answer: just a little:
```asm
func: ldr x0, [x0] // 1
ldr x1, [x1] // 2
add x0, x0, x1 // 3
ret // 4
```
Wait, why can we use x0 and x1 for the incoming address AND for holding
values? Because the memory location housing p1 and p2 are not disturbed
in this function but p1 was written back to in the previous example.
Passing by reference is also an instruction to the compiler to treat
pointers a little differently - the differences don't show up here so
there the only change to our pointer passing version is how we return
the answer.
## What If We Need More Than Eight Parameters?
First, do you **really** need to pass more than 8 parameters?
**REALLY?**
If for some reason you do, you can pass the first 8 in registers are
described above. Beginning with the ninth parameter, these would be
passed on the stack.
**REMEMBER THAT ANY ADJUSTMENT TO THE STACK MUST BE DONE IN MULTIPLES OF
16!**
* If you need just 1 byte of stack, the stack pointer must be changed by
16.
* If you need 17 bytes of stack, the stack pointer must be changed by 32
and so on.
Here is a sample function that requires 9 parameters (for who knows what
reason):
```c++
#include <stdio.h>
void SillyFunction(long p1, long p2, long p3, long p4,
long p5, long p6, long p7, long p8,
long p9) {
printf("This example hurts: %ld %ld\n", p8, p9);
}
int main() {
SillyFunction(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9);
}
```
This prints:
```text
This example hurts my brain: 8 9
```
In assembly language, this program could be written as:
```text
.text // 1
.global main // 2
// 3
/* Demonstration of using more than 8 arguments to a function. This // 4
demo is LINUX only as APPLE will put all arguments beyond the first // 5
one on the stack anyway. // 6
// 7
On LINUX, all parameters to a function beyond the eight go on the // 8
stack. The first 8 go in registers x0 through x7 as normal (for // 9
LINUX). // 10
*/ // 11
// 12
SillyFunction: // 13
stp x29, x30, [sp, -16]! // Changes sp. // 14
mov x29, sp // 15
ldr x0, =fmt // 16
mov x1, x7 // 17
ldr x2, [sp, 16] // This does not alter the sp. // 18
bl printf // 19
ldp x29, x30, [sp], 16 // Undoes change to sp. // 20
ret // 21
// 22
main: // 23
stp x29, x30, [sp, -16]! // sp down total of 16. // 24
mov x29, sp // 25
mov x0, 9 // 26
str x0, [sp, -16]! // sp down total of 32. // 27
mov x0, 1 // 28
mov x1, 2 // 29
mov x2, 3 // 30
mov x3, 4 // 31
mov x4, 5 // 32
mov x5, 6 // 33
mov x6, 7 // 34
mov x7, 8 // 35
bl SillyFunction // 36
add sp, sp, 16 // undoes change of sp by 16 due // 37
// to function call. // 38
ldp x29, x30, [sp], 16 // undoes change to sp of 16. // 39
ret // 40
// 41
.data // 42
fmt: .asciz "This example hurts my brain: %ld %ld\n" // 43
// 44
.end // 45
```
Notice how `main()` puts the first 8 parameters into the scratch
registers `x0` through `x7` using `Lines 28` to `35`. But first, it put
the ninth parameter onto the stack. It did the stack parameter first so
that the stack pointer could be manipulated in a scratch register since
all the scratch registers are being used for parameters.
After executing `Line 24`, the stack will have:
```text
sp + 0 return address for main
sp + 8 former contents of frame pointer
```
After executing `Line 27`, the stack will have:
```text
sp + 0 9
sp + 8 garbage
sp + 16 return address for main
sp + 24 former contents of frame pointer
```
After executing `Line 14`, the stack will have:
```text
sp + 0 return address for SillyFunction
sp + 8 garbage
sp + 16 9
sp + 24 garbage
sp + 32 return address for main
sp + 40 former contents of frame pointer
```
This means that `Line 18` fetches `p9` from memory and puts its value
into x2 (where it becomes the third argument to `printf()`).
## A bit of history
The early Unix kernels would abuse the calling convention to
miraculously pass return values back to calling functions.
Particularly abusive functions would call other functions without
passing any actual variables but the parameters would indeed be passed!
The coders assumed the compiler would store specific variables in
specific registers, avoiding the overhead of using the actual calling
convention they themselves defined. Code that did this had to be
rewritten once Unix began to be ported to machines beyond the original
DEC* hardware.
This had the author scratching his head until he figured it out, way
way back in the day.
(Early versions of C made extensive use of a now obsolete keyword
`register`. It was an instruction to the compiler to store a certain
variable in a register and not in memory in the code the compiler
produced.)
*Trivia: DEC shouldn't be used in place of Digital Equipment Corporation
after the Dairy Equipment Company asserted its right to "DEC".
Those were the days when the entire Unix kernel would be printed out to
form a stack of paper less than an inch high. The author knows this
because [Jishnu
Mukerji](<https://www.topionetworks.com/people/jishnu-mukerji-5288f3c41dedae1c01000582>)
presented such a stack to the author the third time the author asked
Jishnu a question about the kernel. He gave the author answers to two
questions. On the third question, he handed the author the print out and
said: *"All your answers are in here."* The author deeply appreciates
Jishnu Mukerji's formative impact on a young undergraduate.
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